## Key Ideas > [!abstract] Core Concepts > > - **Knowledge is contextually bound**: Learning occurs within social and physical contexts that shape how knowledge develops and transfers > - **Authentic activity essential**: Students learn best through participation in authentic practices valued by communities, not decontextualised exercises > - **Cognitive apprenticeship model**: Learners develop expertise through guided participation alongside more experienced practitioners ## Definition **Situated cognition**: Theoretical perspective proposing that knowledge is fundamentally tied to the contexts in which it is learnt and used, developing through participation in authentic activities within communities of practice (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). ## Overview Situated cognition challenges traditional views of knowledge as abstract mental representations existing independently of context. Instead, learning is understood as participation in socially and culturally situated practices (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Knowledge develops through authentic activity within communities that value particular practices, not through abstract symbol manipulation divorced from meaningful contexts. This perspective has implications for how schools structure learning experiences, though it does not reject explicit instruction or foundational skill development. ## Connected To [[Non-Explicit Teaching]] | [[Explicit Teaching]] | [[Making Expert Thinking Visible]] | [[Prior Knowledge]] | [[Schema]] | [[Problem-Solving]] --- ## The situated cognition perspective Traditional education often teaches concepts and procedures as abstract knowledge separate from their contexts of use. Students learn algorithms in mathematics lessons, grammatical rules in English lessons, and scientific principles in science lessons, often without seeing how knowledge applies in authentic situations. This separation creates what situated cognition theorists call "inert knowledge"; information students possess but cannot activate when needed (Whitehead, 1929; Brown et al., 1989). The situated cognition perspective argues that knowledge inherently connects to the situations in which it develops. How people learn to use knowledge, the contexts in which they practise it, and the activities through which they develop understanding all shape what knowledge becomes. Knowledge cannot be fully separated from its contexts of acquisition and use. This does not mean knowledge completely lacks generality or that transfer never occurs. Rather, the perspective emphasises that abstraction and decontextualisation have limits. Students need opportunities to develop and use knowledge in varied authentic contexts, not just study abstract representations (Brown et al., 1989). ## The culture of learning: authentic vs. school practices Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) examined how knowledge develops naturally within cultures versus how schools typically approach learning. Their analysis reveals important differences between authentic and school practices. ### Natural language acquisition Children acquire vocabulary at a remarkable rate: approximately 5,000 new words per year during early childhood, or about 13 words daily. This learning occurs through listening, speaking, and engaging with language in meaningful contexts. Words are encountered in situations where their meaning matters for understanding or communication. Multiple exposures over time in varied contexts build robust understanding of both denotation and appropriate usage. In contrast, vocabulary learning from lists at school proves laborious and less effective. Words studied in isolation, without meaningful context, create weak memories that students struggle to retrieve when needed. The decontextualised approach fails to capture the richness of authentic language learning. ### Apprenticeship learning Traditional apprenticeships provide another model of situated learning. Apprentice craftspeople learn through guided participation in authentic work alongside experienced practitioners. They observe experts, attempt increasingly complex tasks with support, receive immediate feedback in context, and gradually assume fuller participation as competence develops (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989). Learning occurs through legitimate peripheral participation - newcomers engage in genuine but simplified versions of practice, gradually moving toward fuller participation as skills develop (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The apprentice contributes meaningfully from early stages whilst developing increasingly sophisticated capability. School learning often lacks these characteristics. Students complete exercises designed solely for learning rather than contributing to meaningful activity. Tasks are artificial, created for instructional purposes rather than serving authentic functions valued by practitioners in the domain. ## Cognitive apprenticeship Cognitive apprenticeship adapts traditional apprenticeship principles to academic domains where work is primarily cognitive rather than physical (Collins et al., 1989). The approach makes thinking visible, provides authentic activity contexts, and supports progressive independence through structured guidance. Key elements include modelling (expert demonstrates whilst making thinking visible through think-alouds), coaching (teacher observes students and provides feedback, hints, and support), scaffolding (teacher provides support enabling students to complete tasks beyond independent capability), articulation (students explain their thinking and reasoning), reflection (students compare their processes with expert approaches), and exploration (students tackle novel problems applying learned strategies). This framework bridges school learning and authentic practice. Rather than eliminating explicit instruction, cognitive apprenticeship makes expert thinking visible through structured teaching whilst maintaining connection to meaningful contexts and authentic practices. ## Communities of practice Wenger (1998) developed the concept of communities of practice to describe groups sharing concerns, problems, or passions about topics and deepening knowledge through ongoing interaction. These communities have three crucial characteristics: domain (shared area of interest), community (members interact and learn together), and practice (members develop shared repertoire of resources, experiences, and ways of addressing problems). Learning involves developing identity within the community, moving from legitimate peripheral participation to fuller participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Newcomers learn not just skills and knowledge but ways of thinking, talking, and acting valued by the community. Research on Xerox photocopier repair technicians showed that most learning occurred through informal interaction with colleagues rather than through official training manuals (Orr, 1996). Technicians developed expertise by sharing experiences, discussing problems, and collectively solving challenges. The community of practice supported learning more effectively than decontextualised training. ## Transfer and context Situated cognition research reveals that knowledge often fails to transfer across contexts, even when the underlying principles remain constant. Students who successfully solve mathematics problems in lessons may fail to apply the same mathematics in real-world situations. The context of learning shapes what knowledge becomes and when students can access it. This finding has implications for instruction. Teaching abstract principles in isolation and expecting students to apply them flexibly across contexts often fails. Students need experience applying knowledge in varied contexts to develop flexible understanding that transfers (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). However, the situated cognition perspective does not mean transfer is impossible or that abstract knowledge lacks value. Rather, supporting transfer requires deliberate instructional design: practising skills in multiple contexts, explicitly highlighting common principles across situations, discussing how knowledge applies in varied settings, and building both contextualised and abstract understanding. ## Reconciling situated cognition with direct instruction Situated cognition theory is sometimes interpreted as rejecting direct instruction in favour of discovery learning. This interpretation misrepresents both the theory and the evidence. Situated cognition emphasises the importance of authentic contexts and meaningful activity, but does not preclude explicit teaching of foundational knowledge. Students need explicit instruction in foundational concepts and procedures before tackling authentic complex problems (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006). Novices cannot participate authentically in practices requiring expertise they have not yet developed. Attempting complex authentic tasks without foundational knowledge causes cognitive overload rather than meaningful learning. The key is balancing explicit instruction with authentic application. Teach foundational knowledge explicitly using evidence-based approaches that manage cognitive load. Provide structured practice building fluency in component skills. Gradually introduce increasingly authentic contexts as knowledge develops. Use cognitive apprenticeship principles to make expert thinking visible whilst maintaining appropriate scaffolding. This balanced approach respects both situated cognition insights about the importance of authentic contexts and cognitive science findings about effective instruction for novices. ## Implications for classroom practice **Embed learning in meaningful contexts**: Whenever possible, teach concepts through problems and situations where the knowledge has authentic purpose. This does not mean eliminating practice exercises, but rather ensuring students see why knowledge matters and how it applies beyond school. **Make connections explicit**: Students do not automatically see how school learning relates to real-world applications. Teachers must explicitly discuss connections, provide varied examples, and help students recognise when knowledge applies (Bransford et al., 2000). **Use worked examples from authentic contexts**: When teaching procedures and concepts explicitly, draw examples from situations where practitioners would use the knowledge. This maintains connection to authentic practice whilst providing the explicit instruction novices need. **Create classroom communities of practice**: Structure classroom environments to mirror aspects of professional communities. Encourage collaborative problem-solving, discussion of alternative approaches, and shared knowledge-building. Students develop both knowledge and identity as learners in the domain. **Balance abstract and contextualised learning**: Students need both concrete contextualised experiences and abstract decontextualised knowledge. Pure abstraction creates inert knowledge, but pure contextualisation limits transfer. Effective instruction moves flexibly between concrete examples and abstract principles. **Recognise limitations**: Not all school learning can or should be situated in authentic contexts. Some foundational knowledge benefits from focused practice divorced from complex contexts. The goal is thoughtful integration of authentic activity where appropriate, not rigid adherence to authenticity at all costs. ## Key considerations and warnings **Cognitive load in authentic contexts**: Real-world authentic problems often present complexity overwhelming novice learners' working memory. The multiple variables, simultaneous considerations, and lack of clear structure in authentic problems can impede rather than support learning for students lacking foundational knowledge (Sweller, 1988). **Expert blind spot**: What constitutes "authentic" activity may reflect expert perspectives rather than appropriate novice tasks. Experts engage in practices requiring extensive automated knowledge that novices lack. Teachers must create authentically simplified versions of practice accessible to current student capabilities. **Transfer still requires explicit attention**: Simply situating learning in contexts does not guarantee transfer. Students may learn context-specific procedures without abstracting general principles. Transfer requires explicit discussion of how knowledge applies across contexts (Bransford et al., 2000). **Time constraints**: Fully authentic activities often require more time than available in school schedules. Teachers must balance the benefits of authentic engagement against the need to cover required content efficiently. **Assessment challenges**: Authentic tasks are often difficult to assess systematically. Whilst authentic assessment has value, schools also need efficient ways to monitor progress across large numbers of students. The assessment system must balance authenticity with practicality. > [!tip] Implications for Teaching > > - Provide authentic contexts showing why knowledge matters, but do not expect novices to discover principles without explicit instruction > - Use cognitive apprenticeship principles to make expert thinking visible whilst supporting progressive independence > - Practise applying knowledge in varied contexts to support transfer, with explicit discussion of common principles > - Create classroom communities supporting collaborative knowledge-building and shared expertise development > - Balance situated authentic learning with explicit instruction of foundational knowledge needed for meaningful participation ## References Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). *How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school* (Expanded ed.). National Academy Press. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. *Educational Researcher*, 18(1), 32-42. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X018001032 Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), *Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser* (pp. 453-494). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. *Educational Psychologist*, 41(2), 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). *Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation*. Cambridge University Press. Orr, J. E. (1996). *Talking about machines: An ethnography of a modern job*. Cornell University Press. Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. *Cognitive Science*, 12(2), 257-285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4 Wenger, E. (1998). *Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity*. Cambridge University Press. Whitehead, A. N. (1929). *The aims of education and other essays*. Macmillan.