## Key Ideas > [!abstract] Core concepts > > - Tell students how to participate before asking the question to prevent calling out > - Use strategies that require all students to think, not just confident volunteers > - Students will not meaningfully participate unless mistakes are safe learning opportunities ## Definition **Participation**: Strategic techniques that ensure all students engage with thinking and contribute to classroom discourse, moving beyond traditional hands-up questioning to universal engagement (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Rosenshine, 2012). ## Connected To [[Mini-Whiteboards]] | [[Cold-Call]] | [[Culture of Error]] | [[No Opt-Out]] | [[Wait Time]] | [[Responsive Teaching]] --- ## The problem of calling out Calling out may appear innocuous, eager students sharing answers, but it undermines effective teaching whilst marginalising quieter learners. When students call out answers without being asked, teachers receive the worst possible check for understanding: they hear from one confident student with unrepresentative data, and may think 90% understand when only 30% do. The practice destroys subsequent checks because students hear the answer, making honest responses impossible. Quieter students retreat and lose motivation when they follow classroom rules but see others rewarded for breaking them. One call-out leads to more as noise levels increase and classroom management deteriorates (Marzano et al., 2003). Students call out because teachers ask the question first, then tell them how to participate. Students focus on thinking about the answer and do not hear the participation instructions that follow. This is a predictable cognitive limitation, not student misbehaviour. If students do call out, they must be held to account. Letting it go once, even from well-behaved or rarely-engaging students, conveys that the behaviour is acceptable and creates future problems. Consistency matters more than severity (Marzano et al., 2003). ## Front-loading means of participation Teachers should tell students exactly how they want them to participate before asking the question. The routine has three steps: state the participation method first ("I want you all to answer on mini-whiteboards"), wait and check for listening ("What do I want you to use?... Sean?"), then ask the question ("What is the formula for area of a triangle?"). For mini-whiteboards, teachers might say "I want you all to answer this next question on your mini-whiteboards, with no talking... What is the formula to work out the area of a triangle?" For cold-call, the instruction is "Without calling out or putting up your hands, all of you think about this question... What is the first step in solving this equation? Emma." Silent work requires multiple pauses: "We are going to do the next bit in silence" (wait), "Get your mini whiteboards" (wait), "Remember, silence for this" (wait), "Answer the following question." After front-loading instructions, teachers should verify understanding by asking "What two things don't I want you to do?... Sean?" or "What do I want you to do?... Sarah?" ## Culture of error Students participate more effectively when a safe learning environment exists where mistakes are learning opportunities, not sources of shame. Without this foundation, participation strategies produce performative compliance rather than honest thinking (Bandura, 1997; Dweck, 2006). See [[Culture of Error]] for guidance on creating safety for risk-taking and honest responses. ## Participation strategies Strategies vary in equipment requirements, time investment, and pedagogical purpose. Strategic selection depends on the specific teaching goal rather than novelty. Call and response requires no equipment and follows an explain-frame-reframe structure. Teachers provide context ("Prime numbers have exactly two factors"), test recall ("Prime numbers have..." with students responding "exactly two factors"), and test understanding ("Numbers with exactly two factors are called..." with students responding "prime numbers"). Teachers should give 3 seconds thinking time using a silent countdown, use a non-verbal signal to cue response, and front-load expectations: "Call and Response time. Listen, then respond when I signal." This works best for short definitions, technical vocabulary pronunciation, key strategies and rules, and checking listening during explanations. "Pronounce with me" introduces new vocabulary through repetition. Teachers say "Perimeter. Repeat. Perimeter" and give pronunciation guides such as "I-sos-el-ees." Students repeat multiple times, which is essential for technical terms they will need to use. "All hands up" begins when teachers ask a question and request all hands up if students think they know. Teachers narrate participation: "I can see about half the class has hands up." If few hands go up, teachers provide a hint or use turn and talk. If many hands go up, teachers proceed with cold call or mini-whiteboards. Mini-whiteboards enable whole-class participation in checking for understanding. Students "hover when finished, face down between chin and chest" and show responses when prompted: "Show me in 3, 2, 1..." See [[Mini-Whiteboards]] for detailed implementation. Turn and talk provides structured paired discussion for processing complex ideas. Teachers give individual thinking time first, state who goes first ("Person closest to the door starts"), and provide conversation stems. See [[Turn and Talk]] for full guidance. Cold call allows teachers to select who answers rather than taking volunteers. Teachers ask the question first, then name the student: "What is 7 × 8?... Sarah?" and give adequate wait time (minimum 3 seconds). See [[Cold-Call]] for comprehensive strategies. Sentence stems encourage full responses with justification. When asking "What is an example of a prime number?" teachers write on the board "_______ is a prime number because _______" to prevent one-word answers and build explanation skills. Wait time requires a minimum of 3 seconds between the question and calling for a response (Rowe, 1986). Teachers should allow processing time after student answers before responding. Teachers can make wait time explicit: "Think about this in silence for 5 seconds." ## Strategy selection Strategic selection based on pedagogical purpose produces better outcomes than random variation. During teacher explanations, call and response checks listening ("Prime numbers have..."), "pronounce with me" introduces new vocabulary ("I-sos-ce-les. Repeat."), and cold call checks attention ("What did I just say was step 1?"). For checking understanding, mini-whiteboards allow teachers to see all responses for any question type, "all hands up" provides a quick confidence gauge for simple yes/no questions, and turn and talk addresses mixed understanding when 40-80% of students answer correctly. To build engagement, call and response has high energy, "all hands up" offers medium-high energy for quick participation checks, and turn and talk provides medium energy with processing time and peer learning. Teachers should avoid turn and talk when less than 40% understand, using teacher explanation instead. Cold call works poorly when complex explanations are needed; turn and talk should come first. Call and response does not suit open-ended questions, which require mini-whiteboards instead. ## Troubleshooting Low participation requires diagnostic questions: Is culture of error established? Are you giving adequate wait time? Are questions appropriately challenging? Use sentence stems for support, build confidence with easier questions first, and check whether students feel safe making mistakes. Students may continue calling out for several reasons. Unclear expectations require returning to front-loading means of participation. Inconsistent accountability demands holding students accountable consistently. Confusing instructions need checking and clarification. Accidental rewards must be identified and eliminated. When routines break down, teachers should re-teach expectations explicitly, practise with non-academic content first, check for consistent implementation across lessons, and address individual non-compliance directly. ## Integration with other approaches Participation integrates with responsive teaching by using participation data to guide instructional decisions, selecting different strategies for different understanding levels, and using the 40-80% correct range for turn and talk. Participation provides assessment data for checking understanding. All students engaged produces reliable information. Culture of error enables honest participation by creating a safe environment where mistakes are learning opportunities and risk-taking receives encouragement and support. ## References Bandura, A. (1997). *Self-efficacy: The exercise of control*. W. H. Freeman. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. *Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice*, 5(1), 7-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969595980050102 Dweck, C. S. (2006). *Mindset: The new psychology of success*. Random House. Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. (2003). *Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for every teacher*. ASCD. Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. *American Educator*, 36(1), 12-19. Rowe, M. B. (1986). Wait time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up! *Journal of Teacher Education*, 37(1), 43-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002248718603700110