## Key Ideas > [!abstract] Core Concepts > > - Discovery-based approaches have students learn through exploration, inquiry, and problem-solving rather than direct instruction > - These methods begin with complex scenarios rather than building foundational skills systematically > - Evidence shows explicit teaching is more effective, especially for novice learners ## Definition **Non-explicit teaching** includes inquiry-based learning, project-based learning, and discovery methods that minimise direct instruction in favour of student-led exploration. ## Overview Discovery-based learning has intuitive appeal: scientists discover new knowledge through experimentation and inquiry, so students should learn science through experimentation and inquiry. This reasoning drove the 1960s New Math reforms following Sputnik's launch, as educators hoped to develop scientific and engineering talent by mimicking how professionals in those fields work (Phillips, 2015). However, how experts generate new knowledge in a domain differs from how novices acquire foundational understanding of that domain (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006). Discovery-based approaches overwhelm novice learners' working memory (Sweller, 1988), ignore expert-novice differences in thinking (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981), and produce inferior learning outcomes compared to explicit teaching (Alfieri, Brooks, Aldrich, & Tenenbaum, 2011; Stockard et al., 2018). This applies to the biologically secondary knowledge that comprises most academic content (Geary, 2007). ## Connected To [[Explicit Teaching]] | [[Maths Wars]] | [[Just-In-Time]] | [[Education as Natural Development]] | [[What Research can you Trust]] | [[Cognitive Load Theory]] | [[Experts and Novices Think Differently]] | [[Biologically Primary & Secondary Knowledge]] | [[Part-whole approach]] | [[Struggle]] | [[Motivation]] | [[Situated Cognition]] | [[Implementation Fidelity]] --- ## Underlying assumptions Non-explicit teaching approaches have students learn complex academic concepts through discovery and exploration, with minimal direct instruction from teachers (Kirschner et al., 2006). These methods begin with complex, real-world scenarios and expect students to extract underlying principles through guided exploration. Inquiry-based learning begins with a particular context, pretends students are already experts in this context, and asks them to behave as such. Teachers drop hints to keep students on track without providing direct information. As Heathcote and Herbert (1985) describe the foundational premise: "A teacher cannot presume to give direct information to experts but must set up ways in which the experts will discover what they know while at the same time protecting them from the awareness that they do not as yet have this expertise." STEM and project-based learning aim to show students real-world applications and interconnections between subjects. However, real-world contexts present multiple elements simultaneously, which often creates cognitive overload for novice learners (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007). ## Implementation problems Complex problems present too many variables for students to consider, creating cognitive overload. Students disengage from frustration. The methods expect novices to think like scientists without prerequisite knowledge. Students lack the foundation to act as "experts". Real-world contexts can constrain mathematical thinking. STEM projects sometimes use only basic measurement or simple graphs rather than developing mathematical sophistication. ## Research evidence Klahr and Nigam (2004) randomly assigned students to explicit teaching or discovery learning for the scientific variable control principle. The explicit teaching group learnt the principle better (77% vs 23% success rate). Transfer tasks (judging science fair posters) showed no difference between groups. The discovery approach showed no advantage despite claims of "deeper" learning. The study found no evidence that discovery leads to superior learning outcomes or better transfer. > [!info] New Math > In the early 1960s, the US was shocked by the Russians launching Sputnik 1 marking the start of the space race. The idea was: we need more scientists and engineers and we need them fast. Since scientists and engineers gain new knowledge through experimentation, inquiry, and discovery, we should educate our children through experimentation, inquiry, and discovery. This didn't work for many reasons, including [[Cognitive Load Theory|cognitive overload]] and [[Experts and Novices Think Differently|expert-novice differences]]. While New Math was quickly dismantled due to its inefficacy, this has led to decades of inquiry and discovery learning dominating the pedagogy used in schools and negatively affecting student learning. ## Cognitive load theory conflicts Non-explicit approaches ignore the limited capacity of working memory for novel information (approximately four elements; Cowan, 2001). Students must simultaneously hold multiple problem elements, generate solution strategies, monitor progress toward goals, and connect new information to prior knowledge, causing cognitive overload. These approaches expect students to think like experts. However, experts and novices think differently (Chi et al., 1981). Experts can handle complex scenarios because they have automated foundational knowledge through extensive practice (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995). ## The volleyball coach analogy Teaching writing through repeated whole compositions with feedback resembles a volleyball coach who eliminates all drills and exercises, has players only play complete games, provides feedback at the end of each game, and expects improvement without practising component skills. Complex [[Biologically Primary & Secondary Knowledge|biologically secondary]] knowledge requires a [[Part-whole approach|bottom-up approach]] with [[Explicit Teaching|explicit teaching]] from the outset (Geary, 2007, 2008). ## Appropriate and inappropriate applications Play-based learning teaches biologically primary knowledge such as motor skills, pattern recognition, and social skills. These abilities develop naturally through environmental interaction (Geary, 2007). Biologically secondary knowledge such as mathematical concepts, reading, and scientific principles requires explicit teaching (Geary, 2007, 2008). ## Balanced perspective High-performing education systems balance teacher-directed and inquiry methods (OECD, 2016). This balance considers the type of instruction for each approach, the sequence in which instruction occurs, and appropriate ratios of different methods. Inquiry has value in an effective curriculum. Students need opportunities to work on complex problems showing connections between concepts. However, basing the entire curriculum on inquiry rather than [[explicit teaching]] contradicts evidence on effective learning due to working memory limitations (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2019). > [!tip] Implications for teaching > > - Use inquiry and discovery as extension activities after foundational knowledge is secure > - Recognise that "doing" a subject (like science) differs from learning foundational concepts > - Start with explicit instruction for biologically secondary knowledge before moving to complex applications > - Be cautious of cognitive overload when using real-world contexts with novice learners ## References Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011). Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning? *Journal of Educational Psychology*, 103(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021017 Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981). 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