## Key Ideas > [!abstract] Core Concepts > > - **Change in long-term memory**: Learning occurs when information successfully transfers from working memory to long-term memory (Sweller et al., 2019) > - **Learning vs performance distinction**: Short-term demonstration differs from long-term retention and application (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015) > - **Connection-based process**: New information must link to existing knowledge; without connections, learning unlikely (Anderson, 1977; Dochy et al., 1999) ## Definition **Learning**: Change in long-term memory that enables knowledge retrieval and application after a period of time, distinct from temporary performance during instruction (Sweller et al., 2019). ## Connected To [[Cognitive Load Theory]] | [[Memory]] | [[Prior Knowledge]] | [[Retrieval Practice]] | [[Schema]] --- ## Core Definition According to Cognitive Load Theory, learning is defined as **change in long-term memory** (Sweller et al., 2019). This definition shifts focus from what students can do in the moment to what they retain and can access independently after time has passed. ## Learning vs performance Performance refers to a student's ability to complete a task during instruction or immediate assessment. It demonstrates knowledge or skills in the moment but may not indicate lasting understanding (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015). A student answering a question correctly today exhibits performance. Learning, by contrast, involves long-term retention and understanding that remains retrievable and applicable after time has passed (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Learning represents a genuine change in memory structures (Sweller et al., 2019), not merely the ability to respond correctly in the moment. This distinction matters fundamentally for teaching: a student who can answer a question perfectly today has not learned it if they cannot answer tomorrow (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015). Success during guided practice does not constitute learning. Effective teaching requires designing instruction for retention rather than immediate performance. ## How learning occurs Students learn by connecting new ideas to what they already know (Anderson, 1977; Dochy et al., 1999). Without these connections, new information has nowhere to anchor in long-term memory. This integration process operates through working memory: information first held in working memory becomes linked to existing knowledge in long-term memory, successfully integrates into [[Schema|schema]] (Bartlett, 1932), and becomes accessible for future retrieval (Sweller et al., 2019; Cowan, 2001). When students encounter algebraic fractions for the first time, they connect new concepts with existing knowledge of non-algebraic fractions, algebra rules and procedures, and understanding of factors and multiples. If these connections cannot be made due to [[Cognitive Load|cognitive overload]] (Cowan, 2001) or lack of [[Prior Knowledge]] (Dochy et al., 1999), learning is unlikely. Information simply cycles through working memory and leaves no trace in long-term memory. ## Strengthening learning [[Retrieval Practice|Retrieval practice]] strengthens learning through a well-documented mechanism: when information is successfully retrieved from long-term memory to working memory, it becomes more accessible for future retrieval (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Regular retrieval practice enhances learning because the act of retrieving information strengthens memory representations (Karpicke & Roediger, 2008). Learning depends on the interaction between working memory capacity and long-term memory architecture. Working memory is limited to approximately four items for conscious processing (Cowan, 2001), while long-term memory offers unlimited storage organised as interconnected schema networks (Bartlett, 1932). Information transfers between these systems through specific mechanisms (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). This architectural constraint explains why effective learning requires careful management of cognitive load and why retrieval practice matters: it leverages the capacity limitations of working memory to strengthen long-term memory representations. ## Teaching implications Effective teaching addresses the distinction between learning and performance. Design instruction for long-term retention rather than immediate demonstration (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015), and assess [[Prior Knowledge]] before introducing new concepts, as students cannot form necessary connections without foundational knowledge (Dochy et al., 1999). Incorporate regular retrieval practice, as testing both strengthens memory and reveals genuine learning (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Beyond single lessons, monitor retention after delays to distinguish learning from temporary performance (Bjork & Bjork, 1992). This delayed assessment reveals whether changes to long-term memory have actually occurred, providing the evidence needed to confirm genuine learning. ## Situated cognition: learning in context Learning occurs within cultural contexts and communities of practice, where knowledge develops through participation in authentic activities (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). This contrasts with formal school learning, which often divorces knowledge from its contexts of use. ### Knowledge and context Authentic learning occurs through participation in communities of practice where learners engage in activities valued by that community. School learning often separates knowledge from its contexts of use, creating "inert knowledge" that students cannot apply outside school. The research introduced the concept of cognitive apprenticeship, where learners develop expertise through guided participation in authentic activities alongside more experienced practitioners (Brown et al., 1989). Language acquisition illustrates natural, contextualised learning: children acquire thousands of words annually through conversation and interaction with minimal explicit instruction. In contrast, vocabulary learning from lists at school proves laborious and less effective. This suggests that embedding learning in meaningful contexts produces better outcomes than decontextualised instruction (Brown et al., 1989). ### The breach between learning and use The division between "knowing what" (declarative knowledge) and "knowing how" (procedural knowledge) may be a product of educational system structure and practices rather than an inherent feature of knowledge itself. When students learn procedures in isolation from their applications, they develop knowledge that remains inactive in real-world situations (Brown et al., 1989). ### Cognitive apprenticeship principles Instruction can bridge school learning and real-world application through cognitive apprenticeship principles (Brown et al., 1989). Modelling involves teachers demonstrating expert thinking and problem-solving processes explicitly. Coaching provides guidance and feedback during student practice. Scaffolding offers temporary support that fades as competence develops. Articulation requires students to explain their thinking and reasoning. Reflection encourages students to compare their problem-solving processes with expert approaches. Exploration supports student investigation and discovery after foundational understanding is established. Teachers can create classroom cultures that mirror aspects of professional practice in their domains. However, this does not mean rejecting explicit instruction, but rather ensuring that knowledge is developed and practised in contexts that support transfer. Instruction should provide opportunities for authentic practice within meaningful contexts whilst building the strong knowledge foundations that enable flexible application (Brown et al., 1989). ### Balance between context and transfer Knowledge acquired in one context may not transfer readily to other contexts. Research on situated cognition demonstrates that knowledge is often bound to the situations in which it was learnt. However, this does not mean all learning is completely context-specific. Abstract, well-organised knowledge transfers better than procedural knowledge tied to specific situations. Teachers should provide opportunities for students to apply knowledge in varied contexts to support transfer. Practising skills in multiple settings strengthens understanding. Making explicit connections between learning situations and real-world applications helps students recognise when knowledge applies. The challenge is balancing authentic, contextualised learning with development of flexible, transferable knowledge structures. ## References Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. *Educational Researcher*, 18(1), 32-42. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X018001032 Anderson, R. C. (1977). The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise: General discussion of the conference. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), *Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge* (pp. 415-431). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), *The psychology of learning and motivation* (Vol. 2, pp. 89-195). Academic Press. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). *Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology*. Cambridge University Press. Bjork, R. A., & Bjork, E. L. (1992). A new theory of disuse and an old theory of stimulus fluctuation. In A. Healy, S. Kosslyn, & R. Shiffrin (Eds.), *From learning processes to cognitive processes: Essays in honor of William K. Estes* (Vol. 2, pp. 35-67). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. *Behavioral and Brain Sciences*, 24(1), 87-114. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X01003922 Dochy, F., Segers, M., & Buehl, M. M. (1999). The relation between assessment practices and outcomes of studies: The case of research on prior knowledge. *Review of Educational Research*, 69(2), 145-186. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543069002145 Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. *Science*, 319(5865), 966-968. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152408 Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. *Psychological Science*, 17(3), 249-255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2015). Learning versus performance: An integrative review. *Perspectives on Psychological Science*, 10(2), 176-199. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615569000 Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. *Educational Psychology Review*, 31(2), 261-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5