## Key Ideas > [!abstract] Core Concepts > > - **Learning theory, not teaching method**: Describes how students build knowledge by integrating new information with prior knowledge > - **Schema construction through connection**: Students understand when they connect new concepts to existing knowledge networks > - **Individual differences in prior knowledge**: Students learn differently due to varying backgrounds and experiences ## Definition **Constructivism**: Learning theory that posits students construct meaning by integrating new knowledge with [[Prior Knowledge|prior knowledge]], forming complex networks of connections called [[Schema|schema]]. ## Overview Constructivism is a learning theory proposing that students build understanding by connecting new information to existing knowledge structures (Anderson, 1977; Bartlett, 1932). The theory, developed through the work of [[Jean Piaget]] (1964) and [[Lev Vygotsky]] (1978), explains why students hearing identical explanations may develop different understandings based on their prior knowledge (Dochy, Segers, & Buehl, 1999). Constructivism describes the learning process but does not prescribe specific teaching methods. Students construct knowledge during explicit instruction as well as during inquiry-based learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006). The theory is sometimes conflated with [[Non-Explicit Teaching|constructivist pedagogy]], though these are distinct concepts. ## Connected To [[Prior Knowledge]] | [[Schema]] | [[Non-Explicit Teaching]] | [[Jean Piaget]] | [[Lev Vygotsky]] | [[Cognitive Load Theory]] | [[Memory]] --- ## Foundational theory **Constructivism** is a theory of education that posits students construct meaning by integrating new knowledge with [[Prior Knowledge|prior knowledge]], forming complex networks of connections called [[Schema|schema]] (Anderson, 1977; Bartlett, 1932). The theory has its historical roots in the work of Dewey (1929), Bruner (1961), Vygotsky (1962), and Piaget (1980). Early foundational work by Bartlett (1932) demonstrated that people construct memories based on pre-existing knowledge structures, whilst Anderson (1977) showed how schemas provide a principled account of how existing knowledge influences the acquisition of new knowledge. ## Knowledge construction process Students construct knowledge uniquely based on their existing knowledge, experiences, and cultural backgrounds (Dochy et al., 1999). This construction process explains individual differences in learning. Learners bring unique prior knowledge, experience, and beliefs to learning situations, which determine how they interpret and integrate new information (Anderson, 1977; Dochy et al., 1999). Students "[[Learning|understand]]" when they successfully connect new concepts to their existing schema network (Bartlett, 1932). New information must be compatible with or successfully modify existing knowledge structures for learning to occur. Students hearing identical explanations may develop different understandings due to differences in prior knowledge influenced by social and cultural backgrounds (Vygotsky, 1978). This individual variation reflects the complex interplay between incoming information and each learner's unique knowledge foundation. ## Major theoretical traditions ### Cognitive constructivism (Piaget) [[Jean Piaget]]'s (1964) cognitive constructivism focuses on how individuals construct knowledge through interaction with their environment. Piaget proposed that learning occurs through processes of assimilation (incorporating new experiences into existing schemas) and accommodation (modifying schemas to fit new experiences). In this view, development proceeds through distinct stages, with knowledge construction driven by cognitive conflict and equilibration. Learning is an active process of individual knowledge building, where learners actively reorganise their understanding as they encounter new information that challenges existing schemas. ### Social constructivism (Vygotsky) [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s (1978) social constructivism emphasises that learning occurs through social interactions. Vygotsky argued that all cognitive functions originate in social interactions and that learners are integrated into knowledge communities through cultural tools and language. The Zone of Proximal Development defines learning potential (the gap between what learners can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance). More knowledgeable others facilitate learning through scaffolding, adjusting support as learners develop competence. Language serves as the primary tool for thought development, allowing learners to internalise social dialogue and regulate their own learning. ## Critical distinction: learning theory versus teaching method Constructivism is a theory of _learning_, not of teaching (Kirschner et al., 2006). This distinction is crucial but frequently misunderstood. **What constructivism explains**: How students construct knowledge by integrating new information with existing knowledge structures, regardless of instructional method (Anderson, 1977; Bartlett, 1932). **What constructivism does not prescribe**: Specific teaching methods such as discovery learning, minimal guidance instruction, or inquiry-based approaches (Kirschner et al., 2006). Students construct knowledge whether listening to an explicit lecture or discovering concepts independently (Kirschner et al., 2006). The theory describes the cognitive process of learning, not the pedagogical approach that facilitates it. ## Common misapplication: constructivist pedagogy Some educators have extended constructivism to privilege certain teaching methods, such as [[Non-Explicit Teaching|inquiry-based learning]] or discovery learning (Kirschner et al., 2006). This represents a conflation of learning theory with pedagogical prescription. **The fallacy**: Arguing that because students construct knowledge, teachers should use minimal guidance approaches that allow students to "discover" knowledge independently (Kirschner et al., 2006). **The evidence**: Research demonstrates that minimal guidance instruction is less effective than explicit guidance for novice learners lacking strong foundational knowledge (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2019). The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but minimal guidance instructional consequences do not follow from the theory (Kirschner et al., 2006). **The resolution**: Explicit instruction and guided learning are compatible with constructivist learning theory, as students still construct knowledge by integrating taught concepts into existing schemas (Anderson, 1977; Sweller et al., 2019). ## Educational implications Teachers must elicit and consider students' existing knowledge when designing instruction, as new learning depends on connections to prior knowledge (Anderson, 1977; Dochy et al., 1999). This assessment and activation of prior knowledge creates the foundation for new schema construction. Students' varied backgrounds and prior experiences mean identical instruction produces different learning outcomes (Vygotsky, 1978). Instruction should connect to diverse student experiences, recognising that learners will integrate new information differently based on their existing knowledge networks. Teaching should facilitate integration of new information into existing knowledge structures through clear connections and organised presentation (Bartlett, 1932; Sweller et al., 2019). For novice learners, explicit instruction that accounts for working memory limitations better supports knowledge construction than minimal guidance approaches (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2019). This guidance helps learners make successful connections to prior knowledge and build accurate schemas, reducing cognitive overload during the learning process. ## References Anderson, R. C. (1977). The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise: General discussion of the conference. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), *Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge* (pp. 415-431). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). *Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology*. Cambridge University Press. Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. *Harvard Educational Review*, 31(1), 21-32. Dewey, J. (1929). *The quest for certainty: A study of the relation of knowledge and action*. Minton, Balch & Company. Dochy, F., Segers, M., & Buehl, M. M. (1999). The relation between assessment practices and outcomes of studies: The case of research on prior knowledge. *Review of Educational Research*, 69(2), 145-186. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543069002145 Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. *Educational Psychologist*, 41(2), 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 Piaget, J. (1964). Cognitive development in children: Development and learning. *Journal of Research in Science Teaching*, 2(3), 176-186. Piaget, J. (1980). *Adaptation and intelligence: Organic selection and phenocopy* (S. Eames, Trans.). University of Chicago Press. Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. *Educational Psychology Review*, 31(2), 261-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5 Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). *Thought and language* (E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar, Trans.). MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). *Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes* (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press. ---